References Featured in Course

• American Academy of Pediatrics. (reaffirmed 2021). Policy Statement: Visual System Assessment in Infants, Children, and Young Adults by Pediatricians. Pediatrics, 131(1):e20153596.
• American Academy of Pediatrics. (2018). Screening Examination of Premature Infants for Retinopathy of Prematurity. Pediatrics, 142(6):e20183061.
• American Academy of Pediatrics, healthychildren.org. (2018). Newborn Hearing Screening FAQs..
• American Academy of Pediatrics. (2012). Instrument-Based Pediatric Vision Screening Policy Statement. Pediatrics, 130(5):983-986.
• American Academy of Pediatrics. (2008). Red Reflex Examination in Neonates, Infants, and Children. Pediatrics, 122(6):1401-1404.
• American Academy of Pediatrics. (reaffirmed 2008). Policy Statement: The Medical Home. Pediatrics, 110:184–186.
• American Academy of Pediatrics, Joint Committee on Infant Hearing. (2007). Year 2007 Position Statement: Principles and Guidelines for Early Hearing Detection and Intervention Programs. Pediatrics, 120(4):898-921.
• American Speech-Language-Hearing Association national poll. (2019). U.S. Parents Worry Popular Technology Use Is Damaging Their Children’s Hearing But Still Plan to Purchase Tech Gifts This Holiday Season.
• Holhos, L. B., Coroi, M. C., & Lazăr, L. (2021). Observations on Refractive Status and Risk Factors for Visual Impairment in Children with Disabilities. Medicina, 57(5).
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2022). Data and Statistics About Hearing Loss in Children.

• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2022). Hearing Loss in Children: 2020 Summary of National CDC EHDI Data.

• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022). Screening and Diagnosis of Hearing Loss.
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2020). Cytomegalovirus and Congenital CMV Infection: About Cytomegalovirus.
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2020). Cytomegalovirus and Congenital CMV Infection: Laboratory Testing.
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities. (2022). Genetics of Hearing Loss.
• Child and Adolescent Health Measurement Initiative, Data Resource Center for Child and Adolescent Health. 2019/2020 National Survey of Children's Health. Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health.
• Chilosi, A. M., Comparini, A., Scusa, M. F., Berrettini, S., Forli, F., Battini, R., . . . Cioni, G. (2010). Neurodevelopmental disorders in children with severe to profound sensorineural hearing loss: a clinical study. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 52(9): 856-862.
• Chua B., & Mitchel, P. (2004). Consequences of Amblyopia on Education, Occupation, and Long Term Vision Loss. British Journal of Ophthalmology, 88(9),1119-1121.
• Contemporary Pediatrics. (2016). Hearing loss and the pediatrician.
• Donahue, S., Baker, C., American Academy of Pediatrics, American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus, American Academy of Ophthalmology, & American Association of Certified Orthoptists. (reaffirmed 2022). Procedures for the Evaluation of the Visual System by Pediatricians. Pediatrics, 137(1).
• Fernandes, M., Yang, X., Li, J. Y., & Cheickh Ismail, L. (2015). Smoking during pregnancy and vision difficulties in children: a systematic review. Acta Ophthalmologica, 93(3), 213-223.
• Fontenat, T. E., Giardina, C. K., Teagle, H. F., Park, L. R., Adunka, O. F., Buchman, C. A., . . . Fitzpatrick, D. Clinical Role of Electrocochleography in Children with Auditory Neuropathy Spectrum Disorder. International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology, (99):120-127.
• Foust, T., Eiserman, W., Shisler, L., & Geroso, A. (2013). Using Otoacoustic Emissions to Screen Young Children for Hearing Loss in Primary Care Settings. Pediatrics, 132(1):118-123. [Abstract].
• Grossman, D. C., & the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. (2017). Vision Screening in Children Aged 6 Months to Five Years: U.S. Preventive Task Force Recommendation Statement. JAMA, 318(9):836-844.
• Holmes, J. M., & Levi, D. M. (2018). Treatment of amblyopia as a function of age. Visual Neuroscience, 35, E015.
• Jeffries, A. L. (2010). Retinopathy of prematurity: Recommendations for screening. Paediatrics & Child Health, 15(10):667-670.
• Jiang, W., Zhao, F., Guderley, N., & Manchaiah, V. (2016). Daily music exposure dose and hearing problems using personal listening devices in adolescents and young adults: A systematic review. International Journal of Audiology, 55(4):197-205.
• Joint Committee on Infant Hearing. (2019). Year 2019 Position Statement: Principles and Guidelines for Early Hearing Detection and Intervention Programs. The Journal of Early Hearing Detection and Intervention, 4(2):1-44.
• Lieu, J. E. C., Kenna, M., & Anne, S. (2020). Hearing Loss in Children: A Review. Journal of the American Medical Association, 324(21):2195-2205.
• Loh, A. R., & Chiang, M. F. (2018). Pediatric Vision Screening. Pediatrics in Review, 39(5):225-234.
• National Center for Children’s Vision & Eye Health. (2020). Children’s Vision and Eye Health: A Snapshot of Current National Issues.
• Su, B. M., & Chan, D. K. (2017). Prevalence of Hearing Loss in US Children and Adolescents: Findings From NHANES 1988-2010. JAMA Otolaryngology—Head & Neck Surgery, 143(9):920-927.
• Texas Department of State Health Services. (2021). 2021 Healthy Texas Mothers & Babies Data Book.
• Texas Department of State Health Services. (2019). Vision and Hearing Screening Program.
• Texas Department of State Health Services. (2023). Vision and Hearing Screening Program, regional coordinators of screening training.
• Texas Department of State Health Services. Vision and Hearing Screening Program, Certification for vision and hearing screening, manuals and other screening programs that qualify for vision screening.
• Texas Department of State Health Services. (2021). Texas Health Steps Medical Checkup Periodicity Schedule for Infants, Children, and Adolescents.
• Texas Health and Human Services Commission. (2023). Children with Special Health Care Needs (CSHCN) Services Program.
• Texas Health and Human Services Commission. (n.d.). Early Childhood Intervention Services.
• Texas Health and Human Services Commission. (n.d.) Hearing Checklist for Parents, accessible from Texas Health Steps Catalog.
• Texas Medicaid & Healthcare Partnership. (2023)
• Texas Medicaid & Healthcare Partnership. (2023). Texas Medicaid Provider Procedures Manual.
• Texas Medicaid & Healthcare Partnership (2023). Texas Medicaid Provider Procedures Manual, Vision and Hearing Handbook.
• Texas Medicaid & Healthcare Partnership. (n.d.) Special Medical Prior Authorization SMPA) Request Form.
• Van Naarden Braun, K., Chistensen, D., Doernberg, N., Schieve, L., Tice, C., Wiggins, L., Schendel, D., . . . Yeargin-Allsopp, M. (2015). Trends in the Prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorder, Cerebral Palsy, Hearing Loss, Intellectual Disability, and Vision Impairment, Metropolitan Atlanta, 10991-2010. PLOS One.
• Vasconcellos, A. P., Kyle, M. E., Gilani, S., & Shin, J. J. (2014). Personally Modifiable Risk Factors Associated with Pediatric Hearing Loss: A Systematic Review. JAMA Otolaryngology—Head & Neck Surgery, 151(1):14–28.
• Wang, J., Li, Y., Musch, D. C., Wei, N., Qi, X., Ding, G., . . . Qian, X. (2021). Progression of Myopia in School-Aged Children after COVID-19 Confinement. JAMA Ophthalmology, 139(3): 293-300.
• Wrightson, A. S. (2007). Universal newborn hearing screening. American Family Physician, 75(9): 1,349–1,352.
• Ying, G., Maguire, M. G., Cyert, L. A., Ciner, E., Quinn, G. E., Kulp, M. T., . . . Vision in Preschoolers (VIP) Study Group. (2014). Prevalence of Vision Disorders by Racial and Ethnic Group among Children Participating in Head Start. Ophthalmology, 121(3):630-636.
• Yoshinaga-Itano, C., Sedey, A. L., Wiggin, M., & Chung, W. (2017). Early Hearing Detection and Vocabulary of Children With Hearing Loss. Pediatrics, 140(2):2016-2964.

Medical Definitions

The medical definitions provided in this module were obtained or adapted from the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Dorland’s Medical Dictionary for Health Consumers, the FreeDictionary, KidsHealth from Nemours, Mayo Clinic, MedlinePlus, Medscape, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, National Library of Medicine, nationwidechildrens.org and NewYorkPresbyterian.org.

Continuing Medical Education

The Texas Department of State Health Services, Continuing Education Service is accredited by the Texas Medical Association to provide continuing medical education for physicians. 

The Texas Department of State Health Services, Continuing Education Service designates this enduring material for a maximum of 1.25 AMA PRA Category 1 Credit(s)™. Physicians should claim only the credit commensurate with the extent of their participation in the activity.

Continuing Nursing Education

The Texas Department of State Health Services, Continuing Education Service is accredited as a provider of continuing nursing education by the American Nurses Credentialing Center’s Commission on Accreditation. The Texas Department of State Health Services, Continuing Education Service has awarded 1.25 contact hour(s) of Continuing Nursing Education.

Social Workers

The Texas Department of State Health Services, Continuing Education Service under sponsor number CS3065 has been approved by the Texas State Board of Social Worker Examiners to offer continuing education contact hours to social workers. The approved status of The Texas Department of State Health Services, Continuing Education Service expires annually on December 31. The Texas Department of State Health Services, Continuing Education Service has awarded 1.25 contact hour(s) of Continuing Social Work Education.

Certificate of Attendance

The Texas Department of State Health Services, Continuing Education Service has designated 1.25 hour(s) for attendance.

Certified Community Health Worker

The Texas Department of State Health Services, Promotor(a)/Community Health Worker Training and Certification Program has certified this course for 1.25 contact hour(s) of continuing education for Certified Community Health Workers and Community Health Worker Instructors.

General Disclosure

One of the requirements of continuing education is disclosure of the following information to the learner:

1. Notice of requirements for successful completion of continuing education activity. To receive continuing education credit the learner must successfully complete the following activities:
   • Create a Texas Health Steps account.
   • Complete on-line registration process.
   • Thoroughly read the content of the module.
   • Complete the on-line examination.
   • Complete the evaluation.
2. Commercial Support.
   The THSTEPS Web-based Continuing Education Series has received no commercial support.
3. Disclosure of Relevant Financial Relationships.
   The THSTEPS Continuing Education Planning Committee and the authors of these modules have no relevant financial relationships to disclose.
4. Non-Endorsement Statement.
   Accredited status does not imply endorsement of any commercial products or services by the Department of State Health Services, Continuing Education Service; Texas Medical Association; or American Nurse Credentialing Center.
5. Off-Label Use.
   Using a disclosure review process, the THSTEPS Continuing Education Planning Committee has examined documents and has concluded that the authors of these modules have not included content that discusses off-label use (use of products for a purpose other than that for which they were approved by the Food and Drug Administration).

The following are policies and definitions of terms related to continuing education disclosure:

The intent of disclosure is to allow Department of State Health Services (DSHS) Continuing Education Service the opportunity to resolve any potential conflicts of interest to assure balance, independence, objectivity and scientific rigor in all of its Continuing Education activities.

All faculty, planners, speakers and authors of Department of State Health Services (DSHS) Continuing Education Service sponsored activities are expected to disclose to the Department of State Health Services (DSHS) Continuing Education Service any relevant financial, relationships with any commercial or personal interest that produces health care goods or services concerned with the content of an educational presentation. Faculty, planners, speakers and authors must also disclose where there are any other potentially biasing relationships of a professional or personal nature.

Glossary of Terms

Conflict of Interest: Circumstances create a conflict of interest when an individual has an opportunity to affect Continuing Education content about products or services of a commercial interest with which she/he has a financial relationship or where there are any other potentially biasing relationships of a professional or personal nature.

Commercial Interest: Any entity producing, marketing, re-selling, or distributing health care goods or services consumed by, or used on, patients.

Financial Relationships: Those relationships in which the individual benefits by receiving a salary, royalty, intellectual property rights, consulting fee, honoraria, ownership interest (e.g., stocks, stock options or other ownership interest, excluding diversified mutual funds), or other financial benefit. Financial benefits are usually associated with roles such as employment, management position, independent contractor (including contracted research), consulting, teaching, membership on advisory committees or review panels, board membership, and other activities for which remuneration is received or expected. Relevant financial relationships would include those within the past 12 months of the person involved in the activity and a spouse or partner. Relevant financial relationships of your spouse or partner are those of which you are aware at the time of this disclosure.

Off Label: Using products for a purpose other that that for which it was approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA).

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